Ann. J. Hegewisch, 2018: TerraClimate, ahigh-resolution global dataset of monthly climate and climatic water balance from 19582015. (2016) found that the newly implemented system may enforce existing inequalities as not all stakeholders, particularly smallholder farmers, are adequately represented in emerging water management structures and are often inhibited by financial and institutional constraints. J. Agric. Future climate change is expected to increase the potential for increased soil erosion by water in dryland areas (medium confidence). Earth Sci., 75, 844, doi:10.1007/s12665-016-5614-5. Agric. 20161222); and by the Aymara people of the semi-arid Tarapaca region in Chile between 1820 and 1970, responding to declines in rainfall and growing demands for labour outside the region (Lima et al. In AR5 Working Group I desertification is mentioned as a forcing agent for the production of atmospheric dust (Myhre et al. Remote Sens. Remote Sens.,8, 603, doi:10.3390/rs8070603. Pandey, andC.S. 2013914). Nawrotzki, R.J., and J. DeWaard, 2016: Climate shocks and the timing of migration from Mexico. 2015979; Amundson et al. Abo-Ragab,S., 2010: Adesertification impact on Siwa Oasis: Present and future challenges. All Rights Reserved. Patten, D.T., L. Rouse, and J.C. Stromberg, 2008: Isolated spring wetlands in the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts, USA: Potential response of vegetation to groundwater withdrawal. These measures have also been implemented in other countries, such as Mongolia (Do and Kang 2014; Lin et al. 2017940), while in the Southern California deserts climate change-driven extreme heat and drought may surpass the survival thresholds of some desert species (Bachelet et al. High-resolution, multi-sensor airborne platforms provide a way to address some of these issues (Asner et al. 20161400; Oweis and Hachum 20061401). Morales, C. et al., 2011: Measuring the Economic Value of Land Degradation/Desertification Considering the Effects of Climate Change. Roba, and B. Kaufmann, 2016: Responding to mobility constraints: Recent shifts in resource use practices and herding strategies in the Borana pastoral system, southern Ethiopia. Challinor, 2014: Climate variability and vulnerability to climate change: A review. In Burkina Faso, Dimobe et al. CATENA, 53, 116, doi:10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00201-1. Dent, 2007: How good is GLASOD? 2006609; Schlesinger et al. Using satellite data to map various desertification processes, Ajai et al. 2018357; Christian et al. (Saidan et al. Projections so far do not indicate severe losses in land suitability for date palm for the Arabian Peninsula (Aldababseh et al. this is such a helpful and great article good job!! J.,8: 331346, doi:10.19044/esj.2012.v8n1p%25p. These effects are referred to as aerosol-radiation and aerosolcloud interactions (Boucher et al. Agric. Agric. Aeolian Res., 1, 143146, doi:10.1016/J.AEOLIA.2009.10.001. 2010554) or an increase in seasonal diseases and epidemics (Thornton et al. The main feedback pathways discussed throughout Section 3.3 are summarised in Figure 3.8. Survival (Lond)., 53, 1117, doi:10.1080/00396338.2011.571006. Climate change and desertification are not the sole drivers of food insecurity, but especially in the areas with high dependence on agriculture, they are among the main contributors. Uncertainty exists over whether hurricane frequency might increase, but evidence suggests that extreme hurricanes (categories 4 and 5) may occur more frequently.1,128130 Sea level rise will exacerbate storm surges, worsen coastal erosion, and inundate lowlying areas. J. Geophys. Gruby, 2017: Polycentric systems of governance: Atheoretical model for the commons. Overall, there is high confidence that responding to droughts through ex post drought relief measures is less efficient compared to ex ante investments into drought risk mitigation, particularly under climate change. The use of the AI to define changing aridity levels and dryland extent in an environment with changing atmospheric CO2 has been strongly challenged (Roderick et al. Despite desertification in the Sahel being a major concern since the 1970s, wetting and greening conditions have been observed in this region over the last three decades (Anyamba and Tucker 2005294; Huber et al. 113132. 2018729). We searched PubMed and Google Scholar from 2009 to 2014 for articles related to climate change and health, focused on governmental reports, predictive models, and empirical epidemiological studies. Incorporation of buffelgrass is considered a good management practice by producers and the government. Hermesh H, Shiloh R, Epstein Y, Manaim H, Weizman A, Munitz H. Heat intolerance in patients with chronic schizophrenia maintained with antipsychotic drugs, Bench-to-bedside review: mechanisms and management of hyperthermia due to toxicity. Karatayev, M., S. Hall, Y. Kalyuzhnova, and M.L. Guan, C., X. Li, P. Zhang, and C. Li, 2018: Effect of global warming on soil respiration and cumulative carbon release in biocrust-dominated areas in the Tengger Desert, northern China. 2017952) (Section 3.7.2). Ebi, M.D. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. According to the IPCC AR5 (IPCC 2013)880, decreases in soil moisture are detected in the Mediterranean, southwest USA and southern African regions. Dent, L. Olsson, and M.E. World Bank (2009)953 projected that, without the carbon fertilisation effect, climate change will reduce the mean yields for 11 major global crops millet, field pea, sugar beet, sweet potato, wheat, rice, maize, soybean, groundnut, sunflower and rapeseed by 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa, 11% in Middle East and North Africa, 18% in South Asia, and 6% in Latin America and the Caribbean by 20462055, compared to 19962005. Ballard, andJ.W. In addition to the loss of soil, erosion reduces soil nutrients and organic matter, thereby impacting lands productive capacity. Biogeosciences, 10, 66576676, doi:10.5194/bg-10-6657-2013. Stringer, M.S. Direct exposure to desert dust storm can reduce energy generation efficiency of solar panels by 7080% in one hour (Ghazi et al. Climate, 3, 578626, doi:10.3390/cli3030578. 20081526). There is a significant potential for climate change to increase soil erosion by water, particularly in those regions where precipitation volumes and intensity are projected to increase (Panthou et al. Climate change: key data points from Pew Research. For example, conservation agriculture and better rangeland management can increase the production of food and fibres. The US and the EU immediately condemned the move. Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 248 pp. Sol. Thus their loss due to intense land use and/ or climate change can be expected to cause an increase in sand and dust storms (high confidence) (Rajot et al. More recent estimates show that 500 (120) million people lived in 2015 in those dryland areas which experienced significant loss in biomass productivity between the 1980s and 2000s (Bai et al. Disputing Environmental Change in the Drylands [Behnke, R. and M. Mortimore (eds.)]. Mach,M.D. Browning,D.M., andS.R. Harris, D., and A. Orr, 2014: Is rainfed agriculture really a pathway from poverty? These communities are sensitive to climate changes, with field experiments indicating albedo changes greater than 30% are possible. Food Policy, 67, 106118, doi:10.1016/J.FOODPOL.2016.09.020. Remote Sens., 26, 55355554, doi:10.1080/01431160500300297. Barbier,B.,H. Yacouba,H. Karambiri,M. Zorom, andB. Som, 2009: Human vulnerability to climate variability in the Sahel: Farmers adaptation strategies in northern Burkina Faso. J. Commons, 1, 89109, doi:10.18352/ijc.8. There is medium evidence and high agreement that women will be impacted more than men by environmental degradation (Arora-Jonsson 2011720; Gurung et al. Soil Biol. Ramankutty, N., A.T. Evan, C. Monfreda, and J.A. Data: TerraClimate precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (19802015) (Abatzoglou et al. Environ. Front. 2014929). Soil erosion is a major form of desertification occurring in varying degrees in all dryland areas across the world (Section 3.2), with negative effects on dryland ecosystems (Section 3.4). Glob. 2002). 20111757); and in a few cases additional costs and inefficiencies of local non-governmental organisations (Chandrasekhar et al. Springer International Publishing, New York, USA. de Man H, van den Berg HH, Leenen EJ, et al. The high natural climate variability in dryland regions is a major cause of vegetation changes but does not necessarily imply degradation. 2014943). Environ. Odhiambo, G.O., 2017: Water scarcity in the Arabian Peninsula and socio-economic implications. Smith, M.S., and B. Foran, 1992: An approach to assessing the economic risk of different drought management tactics on a South Australian pastoral sheep station. Hydrol. 2004739; Qishlaqi et al. Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. Hasanean, H., M. Almazroui, H. Hasanean, and M. Almazroui, 2015: Rainfall: Features and variations over Saudi Arabia, a review. Commun.,8, 1372, doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01454-y. Hydrometeorol., 14, 360367, doi:10.1175/JHM-D-12-069.1. Seaquist, J.W., T. Hickler, L. Eklundh, J. Ard, and B.W. From February to April, the pollen allergy is at its peak, with symptoms of severe persistent coughing, difficulty in breathing, and wheezing. Res., 71, 615622, doi:10.4067/S0718-58392011000400018. The major human drivers of desertification interacting with climate change are expansion of croplands, unsustainable land management practices and increased pressure on land from population and income growth. In some locations these regions differed substantially from those identified using the NDVI trend alone, including an increase in the area being desertified in southern Africa and northern Australia, and a decrease in southeast and western Australia and Mongolia. Desertification consists of both biological and non-biological processes. De Colstoun, and L.L. Environ., 197, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2017.05.018. Ind. Res., 196, 108118. Hirche, A., M. Salamani, A. Abdellaoui, S. Benhouhou, and J.M. Environ. (2018)391, 3.5% of the area was converted from natural vegetation to agriculture and human settlements between 2002 and 2011. In fact, even if we are able to limit global warming to the Paris climate agreement goal of 2 C, areas such as the Amazon and the Galapagos could still lose one quarter of their species, say the researchers, who studied the effects of climate change on 80,000 plants and animals in 35 areas. Res., 22, 605622, doi:10.1057/ejdr.2010.41. Environ. Codjoe,S.N.A.,G. Owusu, andV. Burkett, 2014: Perception, experience, and indigenous knowledge of climate change and variability: The case of Accra, aSub-Saharan African city. While the modelling efforts have greatly improved over the years (Hunter et al. Taylor, K., T. Brummer, L.J. Sustain. 2014130; Sheen et al. Mainali, K.P. Issanova, G., and J. Abuduwaili, 2017: Relationship between storms and land degradation. UNCCD, Bonn, Germany, 336 pp. van Zanten, B.T. Arid Environ., 30, 115128, doi:10.1016/S0140-1963(05)80063-1. World Ecol., 22, 533544, doi:10.1080/13504509.2015.1091046. Glob. 20171230; Sikder and Higgins 20171231). Cheatgrass infests more than 10 Mha in the Great Basin and is expanding every year (Balch et al. Durant,S.M. Biol., 20, 538548, doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00364.x. 2011212). Elmore,A.J.,J.M. Fasil,R., 2011: Parthenium Hysterophorus in Ethiopia: Distribution and Importance, and Current Efforts to Manage the Scourge. Dougill, 2017: Pastoralism and land tenure transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Conflicting policies and priorities in Ngamiland, Botswana. 2015676). Pricope, N.G., G. Husak, D. Lopez-Carr, C. Funk, and J. Michaelsen, 2013: The climate-population nexus in the East African Horn: Emerging degradation trends in rangeland and pastoral livelihood zones. Policies and management did not ensure water allocation to sectors with the highest social and economic benefits (Batchelor et al. Nielsen, L.V. Jedwab, R., and D. Vollrath, 2015: Urbanization without growth in historical perspective. Lett., 42, 75637571, doi:10.1002/2015GL065533. Ecol. Clark, S.D. Raj, 2009: Desertification/land degradation status mapping of India. Agric. Cities, 29, S44S61, doi:10.1016/J.CITIES.2012.06.013. This suite of actions is not exhaustive, but rather a set of activities that are particularly pertinent to global dryland ecosystems. Devi Prasad, 2011: Application of GIS for evaluation and design of watershed guidelines. Preston, M. Alam, F.G.H. Int. (2018)949 found a mixed response of water availability (runoff) in dryland catchments to global temperature increases from 1.5C to 2C. At the same time, dryland populations also have significant past experience and sources of resilience embodied in indigenous and local knowledge and practices in order to successfully adapt to climatic changes and address desertification (Section 3.6). Le Hourou, H.N., 1996: Climate change, drought and desertification. On the other hand, over-extraction of groundwaters, mainly for irrigating crops, is becoming an important environmental problem in many dryland areas (Cherlet et al. Meteorol. The biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. 2015124; Klingmuller et al. Fernandez-Gimenez,M.E., 2000: The role of Mongolian nomadic pastoralists ecological knowledge in rangeland management. Tierney, J.E., F.S.R. That argument, largely theoretical at the time, has since been backed up by research, including a 2016 study by researchers from four California universities that showed the states cap-and-trade program reduced the greenhouse-gas emissions that cause climate change but did nothing to alleviate the toxic pollution facing communities of color. J. Wiesmeier, M., S. Munro, F. Barthold, M. Steffens, P. Schad, and I. Kgel-Knabner, 2015: Carbon storage capacity of semi-arid grassland soils and sequestration potentials in northern China. Global Biogeochem. Spaliviero, M., M. De Dapper, and S. Mal, 2014: Flood analysis of the Limpopo River Basin through past evolution reconstruction and a geomorphological approach. For this reason, reductions in agricultural incomes due to climate change or desertification have the potential to decrease out-migration among the poorest agricultural households, who become less able to afford migration (Cattaneo and Peri 20161228), thus increasing social inequalities. It can lead to a decrease in basal cover and the accumulation of moribund, unpalatable biomass that inhibits primary production (Manson et al. Sacande, M., 2018: Action Against Desertification, Land Restoration. U.S.A., 115, 40934098, doi:10.1073/pnas.1720712115. Frierson, 2012: Robust future precipitation declines in CMIP5 largely reflect the poleward expansion of model subtropical dry zones. Communication lines were cut in two critical places. Brubaker M, Berner J, Chavan R, Warren J. Chang., 17, 15851600, doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0910-2. Policy, 79, 2535, doi:10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2017.10.011. Chang., 28, 129140, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2014.06.007. Bioscience, 68, 678690, doi:10.1093/biosci/biy065. Trans. This in turn influences levels of soil erosion, soil nutrients, secondary production and additional ecosystem services (Divinsky et al. Environ. This is a message for Nato states: do not pressure Turkey to take your side against us, let them be the go-between, otherwise all bets are off. Womens empowerment. Phys., 14, 80898103, doi:10.5194/acp-14-8089-2014. 2005490; Okin et al. Sci., 14, 20272039, doi:10.5194/nhess-14-2027-2014. Nearly 0.6 Mha of land in the steppe zone are fully degraded without the possibility of biological recovery. COP27, in November, may force the issue, They are becoming more damaging, but not more frequent, The politician and former environment minister urges Brazilians to vote for a change of leader, The chirps of insects tell an important story, Rapidly melting glaciers could mean more such tragedies, La Nia and climate change combine to create a spate of extreme weather in 2022, Many parts of the ocean are being starved of oxygen. Seneviratne, S.I., T. Corti, E.L. Davin, M. Hirschi, E.B. 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